India recognizes access to safe drinking water and sanitation as a fundamental enabler of human dignity, health and gender equity. Prior to Jal Jeevan Mission (2019), rural water supply in India faced structural and systemic gaps. Only about 1 in 6 rural households had access to piped water supply, service levels were largely infrastructure-driven rather than outcome-based. Quality-affected habitations (fluoride, arsenic, salinity, iron contamination) posed serious public health concerns. Systems suffered from fragmented responsibility, weak local capacity and limited focus on sustainability. This highlighted the need for a paradigm shift from partial coverage to universal, reliable and equitable service delivery. In 2019, India has undertaken one of the fastest and largest drinking water access transformations globally through the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), moving from service deprivation to service assurance in rural areas within a short span. Over the past six years, JJM has transformed rural India’s drinking water landscape. Crores of households that once relied on far-off and uncertain water sources now have access to functional tap connections. Emphasis has been given on “no one left behind”. This expansion represents one of the best public service delivery achievements in recent history in terms of time, speed and scale. Simultaneously this transition was undertaken across diverse geographies including Himalayan and cold desert regions (like Ladakh) with sub-zero temperatures, arid and desert regions (Rajasthan) with scarce groundwater, coastal regions facing salinity intrusion and flood-prone and riverine belts with seasonal variability. However, as the Mission shifts into its subsequent phase, an important question becomes more relevant whether these systems will continue to function consistently over time. The challenge is about ensuring that water continues to flow regularly and equitably, for next three decades after the pipes have been laid. Sustainability challenge Know-how across sectors shows that mere infrastructure never assures service delivery at a desired level over a time horizon. Rural water systems require regular operation, reliable maintenance, and effective supervision. At the same time, rural drinking water supply systems in India faced common constraints earlier. Limited funding for operations and maintenance (O&M), weak local institutions, and a lack of ownership among end users made systems susceptible. As water services have been perceived purely as a government-provided entitlement, user engagement tends to remain low. This often resulted in the vicious cycle trap of inadequate cost recovery, delayed maintenance, and declining service quality. Water security is central to India’s economic growth and rural prosperity agenda. Thus, breaking this cycle is necessary, and that requires a shift in perspective, from infrastructure provision to service sustainability and from beneficiary-based models to local ownership-based systems. From beneficiaries to co-owners Effective water governance requires cooperative federalism, empowered local institutions and community ownership, supported by transparent systems and continuous performance assessment. At the heart of sustainable rural water systems lies community participation. Experience shows that when communities are actively involved in managing their own water systems, outcomes improve significantly. This shift is not merely administrative it involves repositioning communities from passive recipients to co-owners of services. When users contribute financially, participate in decision-making and monitor system performance, they develop a stake in ensuring that services function reliably. This is specifically true for smaller geographical boundaries. Community engagement strengthens accountability in ways that centralized systems often may not. Local monitoring enables faster response to breakdowns, while shared responsibility encourages compliance with payment norms and responsible water use. Women’s participation is particularly crucial. As primary users and managers of household water, their involvement in local institutions such as Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) ensures that service priorities such as reliability, quality and access are effectively represented. Lessons from the field Across rural India, emerging practices demonstrate how local ownership can transform system performance. In several villages in Gujarat and Assam, Gram Panchayats and VWSCs have successfully introduced modest user charges, creating village-level O&M funds. Even small, locally negotiated tariffs have helped ensure predictable revenue for maintenance, reducing dependence on uncertain external funding. In Gujarat, Water and Sanitation Management Organisation (WASMO) facilitates the in-village water supply schemes through the village community/people, where the scheme is planned, organized, implemented, and managed by the VWSC / Pani Samiti of each village with 10% people’s contribution for the scheme. Afterwards, that 10% is returned to GP for O&M. Again, Gujarat Water Supply & Sewerage Board (GWSSB) works for putting in place rural water supply systems as well as operational management of rural regional water supply schemes covering clusters of villages. Thus, it manages the out-village infrastructure. In some cases, in Gujarat, community institutions like Primary Agriculture Cooperative Credit Societies (PACS) and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have achieved near-universal collection of water charges. Engagement of PACS for collection of water user charges and modest punitive measures led to increased collection efficiency, even up to more than 250% in selected villages of Kachchh district. PACS charges 10% of collection amount from GP. Assam has introduced community participation in villages through one of its own kind efforts called “Jal Baithak” where the issues related to village water supply, user charge, responsibilities etc. are discussed at regular intervals. Aimed for school goers from classes 8 to 12, a pioneering idea named Jaldoot Programme in Assam (under JJM), has transformed villages by encouraging students to promote safe water management, sanitation and hygiene practices. Thus, facilitating smooth functioning of piped water supply schemes in their respective neighbourhoods. In selected villages of Nalbari district, village water management committee delegated the Cluster Level Federation (CLF) with the crucial responsibility of monthly tariff collection. This tactical attachment promoted financial transparency and accountability alongside improving women’s roles in local governance. In the villages of Assam, the Water Users’ Committee (WUC) has been playing a key role in safeguarding the effective operation and regular maintenance, thus long-term sustainability of the scheme through consistent monitoring, community meetings and systematized tariffcollection. These things happened not through strict enforcement alone, but through transparency, social norms and peer accountability. When communities see that collected funds are being used effectively, trust increases and compliance improves. Innovative local O&M models are also emerging for financial viability. Some villages are linking water management with economic activities, for instance, selling treated greywater to agricultural users or generating local revenue streams from industrial production units. In dispersed rural areas where economies of scale are limited, community-led models continue to play a central role, provided they are supported by robust technical and institutional frameworks. Successful systems adapt to local contexts, combining financial arrangements, institutional structures and governance practices in different ways. India’s shift from contractor-driven systems to community-managed service delivery and collection of user contributions are strengthening ownership on the one hand, while on the other hand, local capacity building for minor technical maintenance and system management ensures long-term functionality beyond break-even. Roads ahead As the rural drinking water supply landscape in India moves into its next phase, scaling such accomplishments requires an organised approach. Four building blocks are primarily essential. Strengthening local institutions Village-level institutions such as VWSCs must be empowered to take on clearly defined roles in managing water systems. This includes decision-making authority, local financial management and monitoring of operations. Ensuring financial sustainability User contributions, however modest, are essential for sustaining systems. Locally negotiated tariffs, designed with equity in mind, create a direct link between users and services, improving both accountability and reliability. Investing in capacity building Community-led systems require persistent support, especially in training local operators, strengthening institutional capacities and providing technical guidances could be critical to long-term success. Enhancing transparency and accountability Simple measures such as public disclosure of accounts, regular community meetings like Gram Sabha and performance monitoring can significantly improve trust and governance outcomes. Together, these elements establish a framework where financial viability and governance strengthen each other, leading to more resilient systems. The next phase of JJM presents an opportunity to deepen the impact of earlier investments. Community participation and ownership are not optional add-ons at the present backdrop; they are central to achieving this goal. At the same time, the role t water supply will lie in harmonizing community ownership with utility principles, supported by robust digital infrastructure, structured yet inclusive pricing mechanisms, and strong institutional frameworks. This integrated approach will be central to ensuring that the objective of “Har Ghar Jal” translates into a future of reliable, equitable, and sustainable water services for all rural households. This article is written by Arpan De Sarkar Economist, NPMU-PMCB, National Jal Jeevan Mission, Department of Drinking Water & Sanitation, Government of India, New Delhi, India [Published in NIWAS Vartika - Vol-II, Issue-1 (Apr-June '26): A WASH magazine by SPM NIWAS, MoJS, GoI]